LCRM301 Researching Criminology
Topic: Introduction to theory
and the research process
and undertaking a
criminological literature
review
Acknowledgement of
country
PART ONE: Preparing
criminological research
(Weeks 1-5)
In the first part of the unit, we focus on preparing criminological
research and decision-making processes. This includes deciding on
the topic you want to focus on, the kinds of methods to use and the
types of data to collect. You will
be introduced to key ideas and concepts and test your
understanding in the form of an online quiz (Assessment 1)
learn how to undertake and conduct your own review of existing
research (the literature review) (Assessment 2)
consider ethical principles in criminological research
develop your own research question and begin to lay the
foundation of your own research proposal (Assessment 3)
In this unit, you will be asked to propose a research project of
your choice.
 select the topic, refine it and formulate a research question
 consider what is known about your topic (by undertaking a literature review)
 select and develop an appropriate research design where you will outline how you will go
about conducting your research and the methods that you will use
 Justify the significance of your research: explain why the research project you’ve proposed is
important and how it contributes to criminological knowledge
In this unit, you will be asked to propose a research project of
your choice.
Learning outcomes:
 LO1 – Understand and identify key elements of various forms of ethical research design and
methodology.
 LO2 – Critically evaluate current research to identify gaps in the literature.
 LO3 – Apply knowledge of a current topic in criminology by developing a proposal for future
research.
Structure of this week’s lecture
Part One:

• Introduction to theory and the research
  process
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  Part Two:
• Introduction to the process of undertaking a
  criminological literature review
  Part One: Theory and the research process
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  Theory and the research process
• As we have explored, criminological research usually begins with deciding and refining your topic
  and posing the research question
• It is important to recognise that from this earliest stage of research, theory underpins the research
  process
• theory continues to drive the research process from this stage as the researcher goes on to collect
  and analyse data and draw conclusions; research fundamentally influences the final outcomes
• As researchers, it is critical to consider the theoretical context of an inquiry even if we do not
  undertake research that is directly associated with the investigation of a particular theory
• this is true for both qualitative and quantitative research
• We can think of two different ways to understand the term theory in the context of criminological
  research specifically (and social science research more broadly)
• Let’s explore this now …
  Theory and the research process
• (1) We need to think of theory in terms of the
  approach we take to the process of research
  itself
• Think of this as the theory that guides the
  type of research we undertake
• Your preference for a particular research strategy
  (e.g., qualitative; quantitative; mixed-methods)
  will be shaped in part by your general
  assumptions about how the social world can be
  investigated
• This is what is referred to as your social
  research philosophy (you may also see this
  referred to as ‘research paradigm’)
  Social research philosophy
• Your preferences for particular research methods will be shaped in part by your general
  assumptions about how the social world can best be investigated—by your social research
  philosophy.
• There are underlying assumptions that researchers make when designing research projects,
  when writing their research questions, and developing a research methodology that aligns with
  those research questions.
• A social research philosophy is a set of commonly held beliefs and assumptions by a
  researcher about what is reality and what constitutes knowledge (i.e., what can be known).
• Ontology – how we make sense of the world around us; ideas of reality and truth
• Epistemology – how we understand knowledge; how can I know reality? What steps need to
  be taken to gain knowledge about the world or reality?
• When they combined, they form a social research philosophy (or ‘research paradigm’)
  Social research philosophies
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  Positivism Postpositivism
  Interpretivism
  (also referred to
  as constructivist)
  Feminist
  Critical Participatory Indigenous
  Positivism
• scientific approach – scientific method
• objective reality
• asserts that a well-designed test of a specific prediction—for example, the prediction that youth
  who are more attached and supervised by their parents will be less likely to engage in violent
  behaviour—can move us closer to understanding actual social processes.
• that there is a reality that exists quite apart from our own perception of it, although our
  knowledge of this reality may never be complete.
  Interpretivism
• importance of understanding subjective meanings
• belief that reality is socially constructed and that the goal of social scientists is to understand
  what meanings people give to that reality
  Theory and the research process
• (2) Criminological theory
• Most commonly we understand theories to
  consist of explanations which are developed to
  account for social phenomena which we have
  observed or experienced.
• Example: subcultural theory emerged from
  research into gang behaviour
• These theories are developed over time, by
  different researchers, using different
  methodologies and are in constant need of
  testing
  Example: criminological theory and punishment for IPV
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  Theory building and theory testing
• all research is an effort to connect theory and data
• theory and data have a two-way, mutually reinforcing
  relationship
• researchers may make this connection in different
  ways. They might:
• (1) starting with a social theory and then testing some
  of its implications with data. This is the process of
  deductive reasoning; it is most often the strategy used
  in quantitative methods. [theory testing i.e., via a
  hypothesis]
• alternatively, (2) researchers may develop a connection
  between social theory and data by first collecting the
  data and then developing a theory that explains the
  patterns in the data. This is inductive reasoning and is
  more often the strategy used in qualitative methods.
  [theory building]
  Bachman & Schutt (2020)
  Recap: theory and the research process
• All criminological research is connected to theory in some way
• Theory (working definition): A logically interrelated set of propositions about empirical reality.
• Criminological research seeks to build and evaluate theory, and researchers achieve this in different ways (i.e., theory
  building versus theory testing)
• Criminological theory can be a rich source of research questions
• Drawing on theory can generate better ideas about what to look for in a study and develop conclusions with
  implications for other research
• Theories can help us do various things. For example:
• They help us explain or understand things, such as why some people commit crimes or more crimes than others; why some people stop
  and others continue
• They help us make predictions about the criminological world: “What would be the effect on the rate of property crimes if unemployment
  were to substantially increase?”
• They help us organize and make sense of empirical findings in a discipline.
• They help guide future research.
• They help guide public policy: “What should we do to reduce the level of domestic violence?”
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  Theory and concepts in criminological research
• In criminological research, theory and concepts are interconnected
• Concepts are the building blocks that we use to theory build (inductive reasoning) and theory test
  (deductive reasoning)
• At the outset of a project, we must ensure that we define the key concepts that are relevant to our
  research question(s) – this goes for both qualitative and quantitative research
• Conceptualisation – how researchers define concepts
• Process of precisely, accurately, comprehensively, and clearly defining what is meant by a
  particular concept. The resulting definition from this process is a conceptual definition.
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  Conceptualisation
• Concepts are simply words that represent our observations and experiences.
• In quantitative research we usually begin with the concepts of interest to our research problem.
• In quantitative research, it is important that we develop clear definitions of the concepts that are being used in our research,
  otherwise we will not be able to critically think about how to measure these concepts.
• In qualitative research, a researcher will have an idea of the concepts that frame their study, but they are motivated to use the
  data to identify the concepts of importance (i.e., their definitions will change as they conduct their research)
• We can think of concepts as the building blocks or abstract ideas that form the basis of a study.
• they are broad or general ideas that researchers seek to explore, understand, and define more precisely.
• they help shape research questions
• In exploratory research, a researcher is generally motivated to use the data to identify the concepts of importance.
• In descriptive, explanatory and evaluative research, a researcher frequently is already aware of the concepts of
  interest. Their ultimate goal is to describe what is known about concepts and how they are related or associated with
  one another.
• When undertaking quantitative research, researchers need to define their concepts in the planning phase.
• ‘Concepts’ (these are: words that represent observations and experiences in the real world; often they are general and not
  easily measurable on their own)
• ‘Constructs’ (these are: a specific way of defining a concept for research; this often includes multiple elements and is
  designed to be measured in a structured way e.g., through a survey question)
  Examples
  In their study Spence et al. (2012) aimed to analyse public perceptions of climate change and in
  particular were interested in how climate change is perceived as a distant issue by members of the
  public
  Their key concept: the psychological distance of climate change (abstract)
  They were informed by theories, including: risk perception and communication
  In the process of defining their key concept, they identified relevant constructs (more specific 
  measurable), including:
• geographical distance (whether climate change is perceived as affecting distant places versus
  local areas);
• temporal distance (whether its effects are seen as happening now or in the future);
• social distance (perceived impact on people similar to oneself versus on distant or developing
  countries)
• Developed a survey with questions that examined these constructs
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  Part Two: Undertaking a criminological literature review
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  The research literature
  Becoming immersed in the literature on a research area that is of interest to you is a key part
  of defining and refining your topic. It is important to be aware and understand the work of
  others in our chosen fields, especially as we set out to contribute to criminological research.
  Engaging with the literature
• supports the development of your research strategy
• acts as your springboard into the field
• can be drawn upon when making sense of the data you collect and your findings
  The literature review
• keeps us grounded; offers us a guide to the research process, giving us insight into the ways
  that others have approached and designed similar work
  What is a literature review?–
  Davies et al. (2011, p. 79) define the literature review as “an evaluative overview of the state
  of academic knowledge on a research topic.”
  Importantly, as Rennison and Hart (2023) remind us: the literature review organises and
  synthesises understanding on a topic at the time that the research was conducted.
  It “is a type of academic writing that provides an overview of existing knowledge in a
  particular field of research” (Monash University n.d.)
  Useful working definition: A critical summary and analysis of relevant
  literature
  What does it mean to review the literature?
  It involves identifying
  what has been established / what is accepted as ‘knowledge’ in your field of research —
  points of contention (i.e., conflict, debate) among different schools of thought
  the types of research problems that researchers in the field are focusing on
• where is the focus?
• what is missing?
  how your research extends, builds on or departs from existing research
  What is the purpose of a literature review?
  According to Rennison and Hart (2023):
   summarises and synthesises existing understanding on the topic of interest
   identifies limitations and gaps in existing research
   offers justification for the proposed study, and
   places the new study (i.e., your proposed study) in context
  What does a literature review demonstrate?
  The literature review provides a survey and discussion of the key published work on a given topic or field.
  As such, it demonstrates to the reader that you have done your homework, including:
   that you have read widely around the chosen topic
   that you have good working knowledge of the issues related to your topic
   that you can acknowledged the work of others, and
   that you can set your study in the context of the existing body of literature
  A review of the literature presents much more than a summary of relevant sources. The act of reviewing
  involves evaluating individual sources as well as synthesising these sources. This sets the scene for your
  research.
  Quick summary: key points
• Literature review (working definition):
• A critical summary and analysis of relevant literature
• More than just description – critically analyse the existing
  literature on your topic– Don’t just describe previous studies, evaluate their
  strengths and weaknesses (i.e., what they do and what they
  don’t do)
• The literature review should tell a story. – Identify themes/topics central to your research
  area– Identify conflicting evidence– Identify any gaps in the research literature
  What is considered literature?
  Literature – ‘research’
  Generally refers to published information/materials on a particular research area or topic (note: these need
  to be relevant and of value)
  What research is of value? Generally, research that is peer reviewed.
  This can include
  books
  journal articles
  book chapters (i.e., in an edited collection)
  grey literature
  What is grey literature?
• Grey literature refers to materials and research that have been published informally or
  noncommercially
• Grey literature is usually not peer-reviewed
• It is important to consider the credibility of the information source
  Sources of grey literature
   Government documents & reports
   Industry reports (i.e., by non-for-profit organisations)
   Conference papers & proceedings
   Policy statements, discussion papers, submissions
  Reminders:
• Reminder: your literature review does not
  need to include every academic source that
  has been written on your topic.
• This is (a) too broad and (b) not feasible.
• Rather, it should include the key sources
  that are closest to yours and that enable
  you to: highlight the main debates, trends
  and gaps on your research topic.
• Try and focus on recent sources e.g., within
  the past 7-10 years
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  When reviewing key studies – what are you looking for?
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The literature review seeks to answer the following questions
 What research has been done on the topic?
 Who are the key researchers and experts in the field?
 What are the common theories and methodologies?
 Are there challenges, controversies, and contradictions?
 Are there gaps in the research that your approach addresses?
The process of reviewing existing research allows you to fine-tune your research question and contextualise
your own work. Preparing a literature review is a cyclical process. You may find that the research question
you begin with evolves as you learn more about the topic.
What are we looking for?

• For each source included in your review, make
  note of the following components:
• The purpose of the study and the research
  question(s)
• What theories are used or drawn upon?
• How was the data collected (i.e., what
  methods were used)?
• Who was the target population (or sample)?
• What are the key concepts or constructs
  used; what did they measure?
• e.g. students’ fear of crime
• how did they measure it? e.g. questionnaire: 11 item 5
  point Likert scale, face-to-face semi-structured
  interviews
• What analysis techniques were used?
• What are the key findings and what argument
  is made?
• Do the authors note any limitations of the
  study and areas for future research?
• What other key themes emerged? Do the
  findings support the extant literature (this will
  be found in either the Discussion or
  Conclusion section of the paper)?
  See from page 93, Chapter 2, Rennison & Hart (2023)
  How do you organize the sources you find?
  Citation Aims and
  research
  questions
  Methods Findings Notes to self (i.e., other
  themes, limitations,
  usefulness to your study)
  Source 1
  Source 2
  Source 3
  Source 4
  Etc.
  What does it mean to evaluate the literature?
  Each study:
• Consider the scope of the study. For example:
• What was the focus?
• Who did they speak to? Where was it
  conducted?
• What methods were used?
• What reasons and supporting evidence does
  the author provide?
• How did they try and address the research
  problem? What was and wasn’t addressed?
• What criticisms or reservations do you
  have? What are the strengths of the study?
  Are there any limitations?
• Note that reviewing the literature can also
  assist us in refining our research questions
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  What does it mean to evaluate the literature?
  Overall:
• What are the patterns and common themes across the studies you have reviewed?
• What is known and where there is agreement? Identify similar studies and/or contrasting studies
• Plot the relatedness of information: Where is there agreement? What are the authors’ different viewpoints? How
  can these differences be explained?
• Tip: look for relationships and contradictions between different sources/ideas
• Can you identify some gaps in what has or hasn’t been researched?
• What requires additional attention?
• What aspects are most relevant to your research question?
• Where does your study fit in the debate? How are the studies that you reviewed relevant to your own? What
  particular studies / methodologies / research have others used. Start to consider: will you propose something
  similar or different?
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  How do I get started?
  Identifying and developing your literature search strategy
• Identifying key concepts associated with your topic
• What terms are used to describe it?
• Brainstorm key words (these will be used in your search – see Worksheet 1)
• When doing so, consider regional differences in terminology and spelling– English and North American e.g. behaviour v behavior, criminalisation v criminalization
• The aim: to break your research topic down into searchable facets
• Identify appropriate databases and indexes (see Worksheet 1)
• Set search limits e.g. date range
• Limit or expand your search as you go (e.g., start with Australian studies then look to
  comparative contexts, such as UK, US, NZ and Canada)
  Combine keyword search terms using operators
  What does a literature review look like?
• There are different types of literature reviews
  (e.g., narrative review, scoping review,
  systematic review, meta-analysis)
• In this unit, we are focused on a narrative
  review (i.e., a traditional literature review)
• Narrative review offers an overarching critical
  perspective of the field
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  Structuring your literature review
• Introduction
• Sets the scene
• Define the topic of the literature review,
  including any terminology.
• Introduce the organisation of the literature
  review.
• Summarise the state of research on the
  topic.
• Body paragraphs
• Here you will discuss key themes and issues:
• Organise the studies you have reviewed into
  key themes
• You will: describe, analyse, evaluate and
  relate
• Para 1: theme/main point 1
• Para 2: theme/main point 2
• Para 3: theme/main point 3 etc.
• Conclusion
• Summarise key findings and so what? Set
  up the contribution that your research will
  make and specify your research question
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  Reviewing the literature: Tools, tips & tricks
• Planning your search strategy
• This gives your search purpose & structure
• Record your method i.e., where you have searched (databases) and what key words you used in your search (you will need to
  report on this in your literature review)
• Documenting the process
• Note take in the literature table – this will help you when you come to writing your first draft
• Select only material that is relevant to your research topic
• Define key terms, concepts and theories
• Identify themes and group the material
• Compare results and methods of relevant studies
• Demonstrate relevance to your research
• Set the context for your study
• Identify gaps in the research literature that your study will address
• Ensure that you have included all major studies
• Conclude with your research question (s)
  Writing up: How to talk about research findings
• When discussing a journal article refer to the authors of the article rather than the journal it was
  published in i.e. Smith & Jones (2013) found that… NOT The British Journal of Criminology found that…
• When describing the topic of the research say that ‘the researchers investigated/examined/focused on
  (topic investigated)’
• Discussing Findings:– This study showed that…– This research demonstrates that…– This study indicates that…– This research suggests that…
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  How to talk about research findings cont.
• State how many people were involved in the study– Survey: Bruce (1994) found that the students (n= 41) had…– Interviews: Fox‘s (2001) study interviewed 91 facilitators, 18 strategic leads and 21 operational
  leads across the 20 local councils involved.– Focus groups: Stanley‘s (2015) research involving 15 focus groups with 84 men…
• State whether the interviews were conducted face-to-face or via the telephone– Jago et al. (2012) evaluated recruitment for a physical activity parenting course through
  telephone interviews with 32 parents
• Numbers greater than nine should be written as numerals
• Percentages should be in numerals e.g. 93% of participants reported that…
• If the study involves a small sample size (e.g. less than 30 participants) then say X/30 participants
  reported that…– For example, 12/30 participants felt that…
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